The Indigenous resistance of 1523–1525 is described by the conquistador and chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, whose account documents the early stages of the Spanish incursion into western Nicaragua. When the Spaniards arrived in early 1523, the region was inhabited by several Indigenous nations, most notably the Chorotega and the Nicarao (a Nahua-speaking people), organized into chiefdoms. Initial encounters involved exchanges of gifts between Spanish newcomers and Indigenous leaders, which the former interpreted as gestures of friendship. Some anthropologists, however, have argued that such exchanges formed part of local diplomatic and ceremonial practices that could precede the outbreak of hostilities. Resistance, indeed, soon coalesced around an alliance between the Chorotega leader Diriangén and the Nicarao leader Macuilmiquiztli, erstwhile rivals who joined forces with other chiefs (Tenderí and Adiac) against the Spanish advance. The movement’s opening engagement is generally identified with the Battle of Diriamba (17 April 1523), during which an estimated 4,000 Indigenous warriors attacked the expedition led by Gil González de Ávila and compelled it to withdraw. The Spanish offensive would resume later that year through three competing expeditions, one commanded by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. As the conquerors advanced inland, they established the fortified settlements of Granada and León, the latter designated the provincial capital. Despite its scale and intensity, Indigenous resistance was ultimately unable to withstand Spanish cavalry and firearms. During 1524 and 1525, the alliance gradually collapsed following the capture and death of its principal leaders. Surviving groups retreated into the highlands, where resistance continued beyond the formal conquest.